Perceptions of Masculinity in Ancient Greece and Parallels within Modern Society

      In Scott Rubarth's article, titled " Competing Constructions of Masculinity in Ancient Greece," he describes different factors that influenced "masculinity" as defined in ancient Greek civilizations. He compares and contrasts the different factors among three different Greek groups: the Athenians, the Spartans, and the Stoics. This works because these three groups were notably different from one another, exemplifying the cultural implications of "masculinity." 1. Courage - Rubarth describes courage as a major defining factor in masculinity. Obviously, this is most prominent in Sparta because their entire civilization was based on war. In Athens, this was less vital to one's image but still a signifier of more masculine personhood. Stoicism complicated the concept of courage because their beliefs were more philosophical and less about a physical death on the battlefield. In fact, courage in the Stoic community was more about the knowledge of l...

  Body, Dress, and Identity in Ancient Greece  by Mireille M. Lee (2015) Photo: Lee Lee's book describes gender and identity in ancient Greece in a way that ties in the significance of dress. By doing so, Lee draws on the multitude of cultural components that influenced certain ideas, such as that of the Ideal Male Form. The photo above is of a painting depicting Pandora's birth, and while she is typically understood to be a complex character embodying very positive and very negative qualities, in this image she appears simply feminine and graceful according to ancient Greek ideals. The myth of Pandora's birth speaks to the contradictory images of women because her birth - that of the first woman - breeds chaos for humanity, a notable difference from images of the birth of men in mythology. Photo: Lee      The ideal male figure (young as opposed to a grown man) is shown in the image Lee presents above. This statue is one that clearly depicts self-control, an alm...

 In his book's introduction, Daniel Orrells discusses the various implications of Michel Foucault's theories of sexuality and human relationships. Notably, The History of Sexuality  posed many questions about sexual relationships and invoked ancient Greece as a means of portraying the cultural influences of sex. Foucualt's work, like Butler's, has been widely reviewed and criticized but continues to be an important piece of literary theory.  Photo: The New York Times Orrells describes the ways in which Foucault's ideas would have shaped other historical events, such as Oscar Wilde's trial for example, had it been commonplace at that time. He brings up theorists like Freud and the influence they had on this particular field of research, and the differences that Foucault's theories highlighted at the time of publication. While his theories regarding sexual relationships and power continue to prove relevant, his invocation of ancient Greek homosexuality complic...

       Butler's notable work, titled Gender Trouble , outlines modern perceptions of gender and refutes both a binary system and a connection between biological sex and gender. Butler captures the cultural implications of gender by coining the phrase "gender performativity," explaining that all gender is performative because of the influence of culture on expression. No actions or beliefs or qualities are inherently attributed to one gender without the cultural construction of a gender binary. Photo: The Guardian     Butler's theories have been widely cited and criticized. Many critics have added or improved upon Butler's ideas, being as the original publication was in the 1990s. There have been many developments within the field of feminist and gender studies since then, and Butler's description of gender continues to influence studies on sexuality and culture.  For more on Butler's thoughts regarding gender:  https://www.theguardian.com/lifeands...